Merton's "innovation" involves accepting culturally approved goals while resorting to illegitimate or criminal means when legitimate means are blocked.

Routine Activity Theory identifies a motivated offender, a suitable target, and the absence of a capable guardian as the necessary conditions for most crimes.

The Classical School emphasizes that individuals exercise free will and calculate costs and benefits, so proportionate, deterrent punishment is advocated.

Sutherland defined white-collar crime as offenses by respectable, high-status people in the course of their occupation, typically non-violent and financially motivated.

Recidivism is most often operationalized as rearrest (or reconviction/reincarceration) within a defined follow-up period in longitudinal research.

Secondary deviance refers to ongoing deviant behaviour that follows societal labeling and the internalization of a deviant identity.

Restorative justice emphasizes repairing harm, involving victims and offenders in dialogue, and achieving restitution and community reintegration.

While highly probative, DNA's extreme sensitivity means contamination or secondary transfer can occur, creating interpretive challenges for courts.

Status offenses are behaviors illegal only because of the offender’s age (e.g., truancy), whereas burglary, vandalism, and assault are delinquent acts regardless of age.

Phishing uses social engineering—deceptive messages or sites—to trick users into divulging credentials or personal information.