Maslaha refers to considerations of public interest or welfare that jurists may invoke to derive rulings when explicit textual guidance is absent or ambiguous.
72
Which administrative change implemented during the Umayyad period had a lasting impact on governance across their territories?
The Umayyad administration standardized Arabic as the official language for governance and administration, which had long-term institutional effects across their domains.
73
Which Umayyad caliph instituted Arabic as the administrative language of the caliphate and reformed coinage to reflect Islamic identity?
Abd al-Malik (r. 685–705) introduced Arabic in administration and replaced Byzantine-Sassanian coinage with Islamic coinage as part of state centralization.
74
Why were nonviolent direct-action tactics effective during the U.S. Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s–1960s?
Nonviolent protests attracted media coverage of brutal reactions, galvanising public opinion and prompting federal action such as civil rights legislation.
75
Which institution is primarily responsible for ex-post financial oversight of government expenditures and ensuring public accounts are properly audited?
Supreme audit institutions perform independent ex-post audits of government accounts to verify legality, regularity, and value-for-money of public expenditures.
76
One key advantage of adopting performance-based budgeting in the public sector is:
Performance-based budgeting links funding to measurable outcomes and outputs, improving accountability and resource allocation though it does not guarantee expenditure cuts or remove political influence entirely.
77
In the context of public administration, the principal–agent problem is most directly caused by which of the following?
The principal–agent problem arises when agents possess more information than principals and have different incentives, leading to shirking or divergent actions.
78
Which term best describes governance that involves networks of state and non-state actors working collaboratively to make and implement public decisions?
Governance denotes a broader, networked mode of public decision-making involving both state and non-state actors, unlike traditional hierarchical government.
79
In the classical policy cycle model, which stage typically initiates the public policy process by identifying problems and prioritizing issues for government attention?
