Though officially advisory, the **Senate** (سینیٹ), composed mainly of wealthy, experienced ex-magistrates (patricians and later wealthy plebeians), wielded the greatest de facto power in the Roman Republic. It controlled finance, dictated foreign policy, and advised the Consuls, making it the central hub of Roman politics.

The **Colosseum**, inaugurated in 80 CE, was the largest amphitheater ever built. Its main purpose was to host public events, including **gladiatorial contests**, mock sea battles (*naumachiae*), animal hunts, executions, and historical dramas, providing mass entertainment for the Roman populace.

The **Septuagint** (LXX) is the oldest existing Greek translation of the **Hebrew Bible** (the Tanakh or Old Testament). The translation was begun in the 3rd century BCE in Alexandria, Egypt, primarily for the large Hellenized Jewish community that spoke Greek rather than Hebrew.

**Babylon** was the capital of the Neo-Babylonian Empire and reached its greatest fame and glory under King **Nebuchadnezzar II** (r. 605–562 BCE). He is credited with the construction of the magnificent Ishtar Gate and possibly the legendary **Hanging Gardens**.

During the reign of Al-Walid I, Muslim armies led by Tariq bin Ziyad (Spain) and Muhammad bin Qasim (Sindh) expanded the empire significantly.

It is claimed by China (Zhongsha) and Taiwan, and parts are contested by the Philippines.

The transfer sparked protests in Egypt, as many considered the islands Egyptian, though the government argued they were Saudi territory under Egyptian administration.

The ICJ ruled in 1962 (and clarified in 2013) that the temple belongs to Cambodia, but the surrounding area remained disputed.

It provides the shortest maritime route between Europe and the lands lying around the Indian and western Pacific oceans.

Pope Francis (Jorge Bergoglio) has led the Catholic Church since 2013.