Alfred Kinsey's research challenged the binary view of human sexuality by proposing that sexual orientation is not strictly categorical. He introduced the Kinsey Scale, which suggests that human sexual behavior exists on a continuum, ranging from exclusively heterosexual to exclusively homosexual, with various degrees of bisexuality in between.

Collective behavior is characterized as 'emergent' because it arises spontaneously from the interactions of individuals in situations where established social norms are unclear or absent. It represents a departure from routine social action, as participants develop new, temporary norms and patterns of behavior in response to specific, often unpredictable, circumstances.

A folkway represents a social norm or custom that is expected but not strictly enforced by law. Violating a folkway, such as breaking etiquette or minor social rules, is viewed as a slight to the group's expectations. It results in informal social disapproval rather than formal legal penalties, distinguishing it from mores, which are moral imperatives whose violation carries more severe social consequences.

A hypothesis serves as a preliminary, testable proposition that suggests a relationship between variables. It is not a proven fact or a final conclusion; rather, it provides a framework for empirical investigation, allowing researchers to gather data to either support or refute the proposed statement.

Polytheism is defined as the belief in or worship of multiple deities. Hinduism is a classic example of this, as it incorporates a wide array of gods and goddesses, each representing different aspects of the divine. In contrast, Christianity and Zoroastrianism are monotheistic, and Buddhism is generally considered non-theistic, focusing on enlightenment rather than the worship of multiple divine beings.

Mores are norms that are strictly enforced because they are viewed as essential to the core values and moral integrity of a society. Unlike folkways, which are casual social conventions, mores carry significant moral weight. Violations of mores are typically met with strong social sanctions, as they are perceived as threats to the stability and ethical foundation of the community, making them the most crucial for maintaining order.

In a market system, participants' decisions are constrained and guided by prices and incomes. Changes in these variables alter the budget sets and opportunity costs for individuals and firms, directly affecting the choices they make regarding consumption, production, and resource allocation.

Karl Marx is the central figure behind conflict theory. He argued that society is defined by the struggle between different classes over limited resources. His analysis of the relationship between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat provides the essential framework for understanding how power dynamics and economic exploitation create systemic inequality.

Official sanctions are formal mechanisms used by institutions to encourage conformity to established norms. While they can involve punitive measures, they often manifest as public recognition, such as awards, honors, or certifications, which serve to reinforce desired behaviors. This process validates the individual's contribution to the social order and encourages others to adhere to the same standards of conduct.

Factors of production are the inputs used in the production process to create goods and services. The four primary factors are land, labor, capital, and entrepreneurship. Capital refers to man-made resources like machinery, tools, and buildings, while interest and profit are the returns to capital and entrepreneurship, respectively, not the factors themselves.