Hajj is the fifth pillar of Islam because it is the obligatory pilgrimage to Mecca that Muslims must perform once if they are physically and financially able.

Abu Sufyan — he led the Quraysh forces opposing the Muslims at the Battle of Uhud, so Abu Sufyan fits as the commander of the infidels in that battle.

Quaid-e-Azam resigned from the Indian National Congress in 1920, the year he formally left the party to pursue separate political work for Muslims.

Duplicate of Q35. Violence in Kolkata (Guha).

Direct Action Day sparked widespread violence in Kolkata (Calcutta), per historical accounts (e.g., Guha, “India After Gandhi”).

The Charter of Medina (Mithaq al-Madina), drafted in 622 CE, established civic rights, common defense, and judicial authority among Muslims and Jewish tribes in Madina.

The funeral prayer is a collective communal obligation (Fard al-Kifayah); if a group of Muslims performs it, the obligation is discharged for the entire community.

The Darfur conflict is a major armed conflict that began in February 2003 in the Darfur region of western Sudan [2, p3]. The conflict involves the Sudanese government and allied militias against various rebel groups, leading to a significant humanitarian crisis.

In 2009, Hu Jintao was the paramount leader of China. He held the key positions of General Secretary of the Communist Party of China (from 2002 to 2012) and President of the People's Republic of China (from 2003 to 2013). He also served as Chairman of the Central Military Commission (from 2004 to 2012) [2, p22].

As of early 2011, when this paper was likely set, Pakistan had served as a non-permanent member of the UN Security Council six times. These terms were: 1952–1953, 1968–1969, 1976–1977, 1983–1984, 1993–1994, and 2003–20042. Pakistan was later elected for a seventh term (2012-2013).