The Battle of Uhud was fought on March 23, 625 AD (3 AH in the Islamic calendar).

"The Spirit of Islam," first published in 1891, was authored by Syed Ameer Ali, a prominent Indo-British jurist, political leader, and Islamic scholar [1, p13]. The book is considered an influential work on Islamic history and thought.

Hamas (Harakat al-Muqawama al-Islamiyya or Islamic Resistance Movement) was founded in December 1987, at the beginning of the first Intifada [2](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hamas)[3](https://www.dni.gov/nctc/groups/hamas.html)[5](https://www.wilsoncenter.org/article/doctrine-hamas). Sheikh Ahmed Yassin is widely recognized as the principal founder and spiritual leader of Hamas [2](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hamas)[4](https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/ethnic-and-cultural-studies/hamas)[5](https://www.wilsoncenter.org/article/doctrine-hamas)[6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AhmedYassin). Abdel Aziz al-Rantisi is also mentioned as a co-founder [6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AhmedYassin). Yasser Arafat was the leader of the PLO, a rival secular organization [2](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hamas). Ismail Haniyeh and Khalid Meshaal are prominent Hamas leaders who rose to prominence later; Haniyeh became Prime Minister of the Palestinian Authority in 2006, and Meshaal became head of Hamas's political bureau in 1996 [2](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hamas). Since Sheikh Ahmed Yassin is not listed among the options, "None of these" is the correct answer.

As of 2007, the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), now known as the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, had 57 member states [1, p6]. This number has remained relatively stable, although Syria's membership was suspended in 2012.

Anwar Sadat, the President of Egypt, was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1978 (shared with Menachem Begin), making him the first Muslim to receive a Nobel Prize [2, p2]. Professor Abdus Salam of Pakistan received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1979. The PDF's listed answer (c) and explanation focuses on "sciences," but the question is general.

Sheikh Ahmed Ismail Hassan Yassin was one of the principal founders of Hamas (Harakat al-Muqawama al-Islamiya – Islamic Resistance Movement) in 1987 [2, p23]. He served as the spiritual leader of the organization until his assassination in 2004.

Robert Bruce Zoellick was the eleventh president of the World Bank [2, p23]. He served in this position from July 1, 2007, to June 30, 2012, and was therefore the president at the time of this paper in 2009.

In 2009, Hu Jintao was the paramount leader of China. He held the key positions of General Secretary of the Communist Party of China (from 2002 to 2012) and President of the People's Republic of China (from 2003 to 2013). He also served as Chairman of the Central Military Commission (from 2004 to 2012) [2, p22].

Nicolas Sarkozy served as the President of France from May 16, 2007, until May 15, 2012 [2, p22]. At the time of this paper in 2009, he was in his first term as the French President.

The first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol, an international treaty aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions, was scheduled to end on December 31, 2012 [2, p22]. Subsequent discussions and amendments (like the Doha Amendment) extended commitments for some parties, but the initial period concluded in 2012. The Paris Agreement, adopted in 2015, has since become the primary international framework for climate action post-2020.